The Reign of ʿAbd al-Malik b. Marwān: A Turning Point in the Development of the Early Islamic State

Abstract

This study examines the reign of ʿAbd al-Malik b. Marwān (65–86/685–705), one of the most influential rulers of the Umayyad dynasty, with particular emphasis on the political, military, administrative, and cultural developments of his caliphate. When ʿAbd al-Malik assumed power, the Islamic world was deeply divided by internal conflicts and competing claims to political authority, while rival political leaders challenged Umayyad legitimacy in several regions. Through an analysis of classical Islamic historical sources, including al-Ṭabarī, al-Yaʿqūbī, Ibn al-Athīr, Ibn Kathir, al-Dhahabī, and al-Suyūṭī, together with relevant Byzantine sources and selected works of modern scholarship, this article examines how ʿAbd al-Malik restored political unity and consolidated Umayyad authority.

The study first examines the major internal political developments of the period, including the movement of al-Mukhtār al-Thaqafī, the revolt of ʿAmr b. Saʿīd al-Ashdaq, the struggles against the Khārijite movements, the defeat of Musʿab b. al-Zubayr, and the elimination of ʿAbd Allāh b. al-Zubayr. It then analyzes Umayyad foreign policy toward North Africa, the Byzantine Empire, Anatolia, and the eastern provinces. Particular attention is devoted to the administrative and institutional reforms implemented during the reign of ʿAbd al-Malik, including monetary reform, the Arabization of the dīwāns, fiscal reorganization, the standardization of Qurʾānic writing, and the construction of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem.

The study argues that the reign of ʿAbd al-Malik marked a decisive turning point in the development of the early Islamic state. By ending prolonged civil conflict, restoring central authority, and introducing far-reaching reforms, he transformed the Umayyad polity into a more centralized and durable imperial structure. Many of the institutions established during his reign continued to influence Islamic governance for centuries and played a crucial role in shaping the political and administrative character of the medieval Islamic world.